Cloned Animals

A cloned animal is one that is born with the full genotype of an already living animal.

There are serious ethical issues associated with abnormalities that cause fetal or neonatal death and other abnormalities.  Clone may also demonstrated accelerated aging.

However a cloned animal, if born without defect, is no different from a naturally conceived animal in its general conformation and behavior (Archer et al, 2003).

References:

• Archer, G.S. et al (2003). behavioral variation among cloned pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 81, 321-331.

Is Drinking Milk Natural?

Babies have high level of an enzyme called lactase in their small intestine.  This allows then to digest the lactose in milk.  The persistence of lactase in adults is genetically-determined and highly variable.

In cultures and geographical areas where milk drinking has a long history (Northern Europe, parts of Africa and Arabia) a high proportion of the population shows lactase persistence (Beja-Pereira et al, 2003; Hollox et al, 2001). This suggests that there has been an evolutionary shift towards lactase persistence paralleling the development of dairying approximately 8-9 thousand years ago.

Thus, whether or not you consider the drinking of cow's milk 'natural' is a matter of perspective.  A person with lactase persistence is able to drink milk in reasonable moderation and experience health benefits rather than deficits. 

Reference:

• Beja-Pereira, A. et al. (2003). Gene-culture coevolution between cattle milk protein genes and human lactase genes. Nature Genetics, 35, 311-313.
• Hollox, E.J. et al (2001). Lactase haplotype diversity in the old world. American Journal of Human Genetics, 68,160-172.

What is Ethical Meating Eating?

If a person believes that killing an animal to consume its flesh is fundamental unjustifiable, for them there is not such thing as ethical meat eating.  However when meat is avoided for reasons of animal welfare or environmental impacts, a case can be made.

George Schedler (2005)  makes the interesting argument that the animals that exist for meat production, and their enjoyment of their lives, should be counted in favor of a meat eating community.  He also argues that vegetable production causes suffering to 'field animals' whose dens and sometimes lives are destroyed during cultivation. He argues that fewer animals are in fact killed under a grazing system than a cropping system.  This in addition to the human pleasure derived from meat eating can be used to argue in favor of 'ethical meat eating'.

People are swayed in their meat purchasing behavior by ethical considerations such as the perceived welfare of animals raised to produce meat (Tonsor et al, 2011).  However other factors such as perceived food safety typically have a higher magnitude of effect.

References:

• Schedler, G. (2005). Does ethical meat eating maximise utility? Social Theory and Practice, 31, 499.
• Tonsor, GT; Olynk NJ (2011). Impacts of animal well-being and welfare media on meat demand. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 62, 59-72.

Labelling

In order for consumers to support agricultural and harvest practices they consider ethically desirable, they must be able to identify products that use these methods.  For this reason a number of labelling schemes have developed to identify food qualities such as:

• Organic
• Sustainably Harvested
• Humanely Raised
• Country of Origin

Such labelling requires clear criterion for inclusion as well as an inspection process, typically with an independent auditor.

See also:

• Canada Protests Country of Origin Labelling

References:

• Bostrom, M. (2006). Regulatory credibility and authority through inclusiveness: standardization organizations in cases of eco-labelling. Organization, 13, 345-367.

Mercury in Fish

Most consumers are aware that mercury (in the form of methylmercury pollution) can accumulate in the flesh of fish. Concentrations high enough to constitute a health risk my be found in some species such as swordfish.

Chen & Williams (2009) surveyed fish consumed in the United states and found that mercury levels declined significantly between 1995 and 2005. However they still recommend that pregnant women and children should not consume high quantities of the species most likely to accumulate mercury, such as swordfish and shark.

References:

• Chen DY, Williams VJ. (2009). Marine fish food in the United States and methylmercury risk. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 19, 109-124.

Meat and Evolution

Many commentators try to appeal to an idea of what is natural or healthy, what humans are 'designed' to eat.  For example Gary Smith of the "Center for Red Meat Safety" claims that "Evolutionsist tell us humanity ... should now consider returning to a diet more like that of out Paleolithic ancestors--high-protein and low fat". 

A more dispassionate reading of the evolutionary data suggests that our more distant ancestors were herbivores.  Humans developed into omnivores during the late Miocene era, to provide energy for their relatively large bodies and energetic lifestyles.  As such, humans are naturally omnivores (Deneen, 2002; Milton, 1999; Smil, 2002).

As omnivores humans have some characteristics typical of of our distant herbivore ancestors such as:

• Needing to get our vitamin C from our diet
• Having a intestine that is long in comparison to our body size

However out bodies have been retrofitted in the more immediate evolutionary past to digest meat as is apparent from features such as:

• Production of hydrochloric acid by the stomach

Did Meat Make Us What We Are Today?
It is sometimes argued that switching to an omnivorous diet led directing to an increase in brain size and the evolution of humans as we are today. Others argue that the increased brain and decreased tooth size of hominids developed primarily before the shift to meat-eating and later adaption might related to the handling and cooking of tubers as much as meat (Pasquet and Hladick, 2005).

Conclusion
While consumption of meat is clearly part of our current biological design, it cannot be assumed that because something is natural that it is necessary or good.  People with access to diverse food sources can get all of their nutritional needs from non-animal sources (Smith, 2005).

See also:

•  Why Do People Eat Meat?

References:

• Deneen, S. (2002). Body of evidence: were humans meant to eat meat? E, 13, 33-34.
• Milton K. (1999). A hypothesis to explain the role of meat-eating in human evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 11-21.
• Pasquet P, Hladick C-M. (2005). Theories of human evolutionary trends in meat eating and studies of primate intestinal tracts. Estudios Del Hombre, 21-31.
• Smil, V. (2002). Eating meat: evolution, patterns and consequences. Population and Development Review, 28, 599-639.
• Smith GC. (2005). Why people eat beef. National Cattlemen's Beef Association Annual Convention in San Antonio, TX. February 2, 2005.

Xenotransplantation

Public Acceptance
There are very few uses of animals, other than food, that involve taking part of a non-human animal into our body.  Thus it is not surprising that Michael and Brown, 2004) found strong connections between how people understand eating meat, and their attitudes to xenotransplantation (the use of an animal body part to replace a fail human body part).

The authors argue that any new phenomenon is initially understood with reference to something familiar.  Because animals are used and understood in such diverse ways, and meat represents the closest equivalent for a situation such as the use of pig as donors of cells, valves, and potentially organs. However meat itself is frequently seen as a source of concern based on intensive farming, disease issues and animal transportation methods.  So this comparison is not entirely unproblematic.

Michael and Brown carried out focus groups and extracted three main types of argument: whether people involved in the process are trustworthy, whether ones opinion carries an weight, and how needing a life-saving procedure would change one's willingness to use a xenotransplanted organ. The focus groups exchanges around meat eating show how it provides a familiar model for understanding the option of using animal parts for human purposes--in situations where the literal need may be much greater than eating meat, which is rarely absolutely necessary for continued health and life.

Conversely, it has been suggested that if swine are more widely accepted as organ donors people may feel more 'closely related' to pigs and become less willing to eat them (Glein, 2002).

Risks
The immediate problem with transplantion from a non-human donor is rejection.  Research is underway to try and develop donor animals and anti-immune regimes that will allow a wider array of organs and tissues to be donated by non-human animals. 

This is also a longer term risk of the transfer of infection agents and the development of dangerous zoonotic diseases (Glein, 2002).

References:

• Glein, H. (2002). Custom made piggeries in Norway? View of the meat producing industry. Acta. Vet. Scand., Suppl 99, 51-52.
• Michael, M., Brown, N. (2004). The meat of the matter:grasping and judging xenotransplantation. Public Understanding of Science, 13, 379-397.

Dietary Restriction and Illness

Diet elimination studies typically use small groups suffering from the health issue under investigate, with a control time period or group, and a time period or group under the influence of on a restricted diet, typically for a period of 2-8 weeks.

Migraines
A small study employed phases with diets where any foods that patient had IgG positivity for were eliminated, and another where they were deliberately increased.  these foods varied between patients but commonly included seafood and cheese, and for some patients included eggs, milk and meat.  Diet was shown to effect migraine frequency ( Alpay et al, 2010).

Asthma
A small study of asthmatic children in the United Kingdom gives some credence to the idea that a milk and egg-free diet can improve their symptom. Thirteen experimental and nine control children were studies over an 8 week period and the children on a restricted diet showed improvements in IgC antibodies, and in some cases lung function and overall health as self-reported and confirmed by a pediatrician.

References:

• Alpay K, Ertas, M, Orhan E, Ustay DK, Lieners C, Baykan B. (2010) Cephalalgia, 30, 829-837.
• Yusoff, N.A.M., Hampton, S.M., Dickerson, J.W.T., Morgan, J.B. (2004). The effects of exclusions of dietary egg and milk in the management of asthmatic children: a pilot study. The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 124, 74-80.

Why Do People Eat Meat?

Why Do People Eat Meat?

Flavor
It seems that taste is the main driver of meat consumption. Meat is consumed predominantly for the pleasure derived from consumption (Becker et al, 2004; Verbecke et at, 2004).

Becker et al (2004) studied the attitudes of members of the general public and found some interesting correlations: 1) The main reason people eat meat is for its taste, and 2) people who eat more meat feel less in control (both of their own health and the conditions under which meat-producing animals are kept).  In fact, the more people ate conventionally produced meat, the less interested they were in pursuing improvements to the meat production system.

So, we seem to be in a situation where the key consumers and enjoyers of meat products are also the most likely actively disinterested in eating in a way that improves their health and the welfare of farmed animals.  This, frankly, needs to change.

Why Do People Not Eat Meat?
A minority of people identify themselves as vegetarian (e.g. 2.3%, Gossard and York, 2003). If you look at why some people do not eat meat--it often includes an objection to modern farming methods. Thus local, sustainable and welfare-friendly farming practises may be sufficient to convince some vegetarians to enjoy meat in moderation (Lennon, 2007).  This may partially explain why some people who identify as vegetarian do eat some meat (Gossard and York, 2003).

Which People Eat Meat?
A study of US consumers found that meat consumption is positively associated with being male, Black and Asian ethnicities and being employed as a laborer.  It is negatively associated with level of education and age, and unrelated to income and geography (Gossard and York, 2003).

A survey in Belgium found that 57% of people eat fresh  (versus prepared/pre-cooked) meat dailly.  The population could be divided into 'straightforward meat lovers' and those who were 'concerned' or 'cautious' due to safety issues such as dioxins and BSE.  The difference between these groups is that 'concerned' consumers are reducing their meat intake in terms of quantity and seeking higher quality. There is also a group is 'indifferent consumers' who are not driven by high enjoyment of meat but are not worried about the issues either, low price is their main concern.

References:

• Becker, R., Kals, E., Frohlich, P. (2004). meat consumption and commitments on meat policy: combining individual and public health. Journal of Health Psychology, 9, 143-155.
• Gossard MH, York R. (2003). Social structiral influences on meat consumption. Research in Human Ecology, 10, 1-9.
• Lennon, C. (2007) Why vegetarians eat meat. Food and Wine, August, 60-61.
• Verbeke, W; Vackier, I. (2004). Profile and effects of consumer involvement in fresh meat. Meat Science, 67, 159-168.

What is a "Traditional Food Product"?

As defined by Vanhonacker et al (2010) a traditional food product is "a product frequently consumed or associated to specific celebrations and/or seasons, transmitted from one generation to another, made in a specific way according to gastronomic heritage, naturally processed, and distinguished and known because of its sensory properties and associated to a certain local area, region of country." ...Which bears all the hallmarks of a definition created by a committee.

Basically there is a category of food that are an integral part of local culture and festivities.  Exactly what this involves varies between countries and regions, but this is the kind of food that is important to people, it has meaning for them.  As such, a wide definition that includes many elements that make a particular food meaningful seems appropriate.

References:

• Vanhonacker et la (2010). How European consumers define the concept of traditional food: evidence from a survey of six countries. Agrobusiness, 26, 453-476.

Milk, Honey, and Big Macs

In "Weight Control in a Land of Milk and Honey" Lisa Terre paints a picture of an America in which unhealthy foods are pushed, in abundance, through relentless "predatory advertising practices".  These two factors leading to spiralling levels of obesity-combined with a disempowering bias against the obese and attribution of their problems simply to a lack of self-control.  Discounting the temporary effects of dieting Terre points instead to a more general pushback against this unhealthy climate.  However, how can health focused initiative be made effective? In the mean time the only solution for those suffering ill effects of being overweight seems to be careful self-monitoring and incremental lifestyle changes--with an overall 5-10% BMI reduction being a realistic goal.

References:

• Terre, L. (2007). Weight control in a land of milk and honey. Behavioral Medicine Review,1, 447-450.

Food Allergies in Schools

Attention must be given to the prevalence of allergies in any group being provided with food, but especially children.  Some of the more commonly problematical foods include fish, eggs and milk.  In extreme cases accidental intake of the allergen can lead to anaphylaxis, a potential fatal response in the lungs and heart. While most people are aware that peanuts can cause an anaphylactic reponses, the same is true for some animal products such as milk.


Behrman (2010) outlines some basic principles for people providing food in the school setting.  He suggests that school need to ensure they have complete information about student's allergies.  The school should be prepared to respond to a medical emergency caused by a severe allergic reaction, including having a accessible supply of epinephrine and staff trained in its use.  And of course it is preferable to avoid an allergic student from consuming food that is not safe (either from the school cafeteria or via sharing with other students). This can be done through a combination of policies about which foods are brought in, how they are handled, provided and consumed. Behrman discusses how it is important to allow students to keep their allergy status confidential or at least low key to avoid stigmatisation and even bullying based on their condition.

Sources:

• Behrmann, J. (2010). Ethical principles as a guide in implementing policies for the management of food allergies in schools. The Journal of School Nursing, 26, 183-193.

See also:

• Give Thanks While Keeping Allergies and Asthma in Check

Eating Emu in America

Emu meat is marketed as a healthy red meat with relatively low fat (2.5% versus over 5% for beef, Shao et al, 1999) and cholesterol.  Emus are farmed predominantly in the United States and Australia (Dingle, 1997). However a large scale market for this products has not developed.

Adams et al (2000) argue that emu meat is best marketed as a 'game animal' meat similar to duck and quail.  that is to say, most people would not buy it at the supermarket, but might be willing to try it in a restaurant setting. 

Their survey results suggest that the willingness of people to eat a new meat product, even in a fine dining context, is strongly affected by wider 'social acceptability'.  And at the time of the study the social acceptability of eating emu was consider somewhat low.  Based on its absence from restaurant menus (as far as I have observed) this still seems to be the case.

References:

• Adams, C.R., Hoover, L.C., Arnett. D.B. and Thomspon, L.D. (2000). Social acceptability's role in an expanded rational expectation model of intention to consume an innovative meat product in a restaurant setting. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 24, 252-262.
• Dingle, J.G. (1997). Emu and Ostrich production and its consequences for human nutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of Australia, 21, 37-43.
• Shao, C.H., Avens, J.S., Schmidt, G.R., Maga, J.A. (1999). Functional, sensory, and microbiological properties of restructured beef and emu steaks. Journal of Food Science, 64, 1052-1054.

Student Attitudes to GM Food

A survey of 372 students found that factors such as age, gender, bio tech knowledge, politics, religion and trust in government or industry had no consistent relation with willingness to eat transgenicc meat.  Fifty percent of the students indicated that they would eat transgenic meat. These students were also more likely to read labels when shopping, and they had higher trust that scientists are truthful about transgenic meat.

It is interesting that although the FDA and GM animal producers oppose labeling of BM products, as this study suggests that people who attend most to labels are also most accepting of GM meat products.  However this small student self-report study may not reflect actual shopping behavior, or the attitudes of the wider general public.

Sources:

• Ibrahim, M., Johnson, F. Brewer, A. (2010). Student response to transgenic meat: an analysis of a Fort Valley State University survey. 2010 Annual Meeting, February 6-9, 2010, Orlando, Florida. [Full Text]

Melamine in Milk [China]

Melamine-contaminated milk powder has surfaced again in the Shanxi province of China.  The milk powder was produced by Jinfulai Dairy Company. Melamine is used to make a product appear to be of a higher quality, specifically a higher protein content.  Melaminecan be used in milk to disguise the fact that the milk has been watered down.


Sources:

• Seven Arrested over More Melamine-tainted Milk Found in China
• China arrests six in latest melamine milk powder scare

FDA Considers GM Salmon

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is currently considering whether  genetically modified Atlantic salmon are safe for consumers, and whether it should carry special labelling.

AquaBounty Technologies Inc developed the fish to be fast growing, halving the normal 3 year growing period.  The GM fish produces growth hormones all year, rather than just in the summer.

AquaBounty appear to oppose labelling requirements that would identify the salmon to consumers as genetically modified.  Reuters report that David Edwards, head of animal biotechnology for the Biotechnology Industry said that special labelling:  "just causes confusion for the consumers."

Opponents question the safety of the product, and warn that escaped GM fish could devastate wild salmon populations.

Genetically engineered vegetables (such as corn and soy) are widely available, as a GM pet animals (e.g. Yorktown Technologies LP's GloFish).  However the Aqua Bounty salmon will be something of a test case when it comes to food animals. If AquaBounty obtain approval for their Atlantic salmon similar lines of tilapia and trout would likely follow.


Sources:

• Biotech salmon faces scrutiny at FDA panel
• FDA advisors to vote on genetically engineered salmon
• A genetically engineered fillet: GMO salmon and future food
• Has FDA Already Decided About Genetically Engineered Salmon?

Religion and Meat (in progress)

Christianity

Barclay (2010) suggests that a Christain orientation, specifically  to wards food includes thanksgiving to God and careful consideration of the well-being of others.  On this basis he argues that wealthy Christians should consider greatly reducing their meat intake based on the adverse environmental effects of large scake meat production.

Islam

British Question Halal Meat

The Mail seemed outraged that a lot of meat served at British events, schools and in other public settings including Wembley Stadium is Halal.  Halal meat is of a type and preparation considered correct under Islamic law.  Specifically it is not pork, and has been slaughter with a prayer to Allah by cutting he neck veins resulting in rapid exsanguination--minimising the amount of blood left in the carcass. 

It has been suggested that Christians should not eat alal meat because it has been dedicated to Allah. Some also argue that halal slaughter is not humane as the animal is not "stunned" (unconscious) when it is killed.  For this reason The RSPCA and Vegetarians International Voice for Animals (Viva!) oppose providing only Halal options to consumers, and not informing them that the meat is Halal.

References:

• Barclay, JMG. (2010). Food, Christian identity and global warming: a Pauline call for a Christian food taboo. The Expository Times, 121, 585-593.

Sources:

• Halal Britain: Famous institutions and schools routinely serve up ritually slaughtered meat
• On London's Halal Hoo Ha

Canada Protests Country of Origin Labelling

Country of Origin Labelling (COOL) has been in the news recently.  It currently requires that if an animal is raised in Canada, but processed in the United States, it must be labelled as "Canadian".

Republican senator Saxby Chambliss, who is currently visiting Canada, supports the law.  He argues that because Canadian products are of a high quality, comparable to American products, the label should produce no disadvantage.

However the Canadian government feels this practice  places the Canadian product at a disadvantage in the American market because Americans want to 'buy American' even when other products are of similar quality. Canada and Mexico  are protesting to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) that COOL labelling represents an unwarranted barrier to trade.

Sources:

• U.S. senator backs meat labelling law [CBC]
• Country-of-origin meat labelling on the way [Times Colonist]

Recall: Hallmark Fisheries Crabmeat

Hallmark Fisheries (Oregan) is recalling crabmeat products. The effected products are large containers are used by food service companies and so it is unlikely that members of the public will have them in their larders.  The recall relates to five-pound cans, one-pound vacuum packs, one-pound plastic tubs, and eight-ounce plastic tubs of crabmeat branded Hallmark, Peacock, Yaquina Bay and Quality Ocean International. The recall affects the states of Washington, Nevada, Oregon and California.

The potential contaminant is a bacterium called Listeria (Listeria monocytogenes) which can cause an illness (called: listeriosis) in young children, the elderly or people with weakened immune systems.  Pregnant women should avoid products that might contain Listeria is it is can be transmitted to the baby at birth and potential cause meningitis. Listeria results in 2,500 illnesses and 500 deaths in the United States each year.

• Listeria Prompts Crabmeat Recall
• Hallmark Fisheries recalls crab meat products distributed in Nevada
• Crab Meat Product Recall In Nevada

Feeding Meat to Herbivorous Animals: the Taboo

In later posts I will look at the very real health and safety consequences that can occur when animal flesh is feed to herbivorous livestock such as sheep, cows and horses.  But in this post I want to discuss how our aversion to this practice has pre-scientific roots and functions as a cultural taboo.

Many people have feeling about the natural order of things. The sheep eats the grass, the man eats the sheep.  Much of this natural order is no longer literally necessary.  Stock feed may be safely made from many different products, processed to extract their consituent nutrients.  The same is true of the human diet which no longer needs to include meat for nutritional reasons.  However the "natural order" remains intuitive pleasing to the majority, and has for a rather long time.  This may explain the existence of cuationary myths about how animals may be driven mad by feeding them inappropriate foods.

Several myths tell how horses were driven mad by being fed flesh, and went on to attack an devour their owners.  Glaucus, King of Ephyra, was said to feed his chariot horses human flesh--ultimately causing them to turn on him during a race and eat him alive.  Likewise the Thracian King Diomedes was said to feed human flesh to horses and turned upon him and ate him.  These myths can be read as encoded warnings that animals should be feed that which is natural for them.


Sources::
Papakostas YG (2005). et al Horse Madness (hippomania) and hippophobia. History of Psychiatry 16, 467-471.

What This Blog is About

There are many people in the world who either do not eat meat at all, or eat it unapologetically with no interest in how it is produced and the impacts on animal welfare (and also to some extent, conservation, nationalism, religious identity and a great many other subjects).  This blog is not for those people.

Others eat meat but want to make good ethical choices.  The want to know where their food comes from, how it is made, and how one product is different from another.  They do not, however, want to make the acquisition of this knowledge their life's work or daily obsession.   This is where I come in.

In this blog I will begin to tease apart the different types of animal products available to consumers.  What makes them different, what about this food might you want to know, where it was made? Was it raised humanely? Is it vegetarian fed, organic, genetically modified?  What doe this all mean. 

 

Some of the qualities food have are factual, like where it was made, what breed of animal it came from, how it was slaughtered, and it's nutritional qualities.  Some of these qualities are more conceptual, what some researchers call the fetishization of food (Cook, 2006).  This is what makes food seem wholesome, patriotic, exotic, sexy or comforting, regardless of what its constituent parts might actually be.  Sometimes these two aspects are inter-meshed in strange and misleading ways.

I intend to investigated animal-based foods (meat, milk and eggs), case-by-case, issue by issue, and draw what I learn altogether into a single, simple consumer guide which will, hopefully, emerge from this blog in book form.  I hope some of you will come along on this journey of discovery.

 

Welcome.

References:

• Cook I. (2006). Geographies of food: following. Progress in Human Geography 30, 655-666.